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International hierarchy and the origins of the modern practice of intervention
- EDWARD KEENE
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- Journal:
- Review of International Studies / Volume 39 / Issue 5 / December 2013
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 08 October 2013, pp. 1077-1090
- Print publication:
- December 2013
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This article argues that hierarchy plays an important role in shaping the practice of intervention, and that the changing nature of international hierarchy is a crucial part of the story of how the modern practice of intervention emerged. It describes the early modern order of precedence, and contends that it was ill-suited to encouraging people to recognise intervention as a distinctive kind of practice. However, over the course of the eighteenth century the structure of international hierarchy changed, with the emergence of a new kind of grading of powers, which provided the context for the development of a practice of intervention after 1815.
Evaluation of Potential Environmental Contamination Sources for the Presence of Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria Linked to Wound Infections in Combat Casualties
- Edward F. Keen III, Katrin Mende, Heather C. Yun, Wade K. Aldous, Timothy E. Wallum, Charles H. Guymon, David W. Cole, Helen K. Crouch, Matthew E. Griffith, Bernadette L. Thompson, Joel T. Rose, Clinton K. Murray
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- Journal:
- Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology / Volume 33 / Issue 9 / September 2012
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 January 2015, pp. 905-911
- Print publication:
- September 2012
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Objective.
To determine whether multidrug-resistant (MDR) gram-negative organisms are present in Afghanistan or Iraq soil samples, contaminate standard deployed hospital or modular operating rooms (ORs), or aerosolize during surgical procedures.
Design.Active surveillance.
Setting.US military hospitals in the United States, Afghanistan, and Iraq.
Methods.Soil samples were collected from sites throughout Afghanistan and Iraq and analyzed for presence of MDR bacteria. Environmental sampling of selected newly established modular and deployed OR high-touch surfaces and equipment was performed to determine the presence of bacterial contamination. Gram-negative bacteria aerosolization during OR surgical procedures was determined by microbiological analysis of settle plate growth.
Results.Subsurface soil sample isolates recovered in Afghanistan and Iraq included various pansusceptible members of Enterobacteriaceae, Vibrio species, Pseudomonas species, Acinetobacter Iwojfii, and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CNS). OR contamination studies in Afghanistan revealed 1 surface with a Micrococcus luteus. Newly established US-based modular ORs and the colocated fixed-facility ORs revealed no gram-negative bacterial contamination prior to the opening of the modular OR and 5 weeks later. Bacterial aerosolization during surgery in a deployed fixed hospital revealed a mean gram-negative bacteria colony count of 12.8 colony-forming units (CFU)/dm2/h (standard deviation [SD], 17.0) during surgeries and 6.5 CFU/dm2/h (SD, 7.5; P = .14) when the OR was not in use.
Conclusion.This study demonstrates no significant gram-negative bacilli colonization of modular and fixed-facility ORs or dirt and no significant aerosolization of these bacilli during surgical procedures. These results lend additional support to the role of nosocomial transmission of MDR pathogens or the colonization of the patient themselves prior to injury.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Changes in the Incidences of Multidrug-Resistant and Extensively Drug-Resistant Organisms Isolated in a Military Medical Center
- Edward F. Keen III, Clinton K. Murray, Brian J. Robinson, Duane R. Hospenthal, Edgie-Mark A. Co, Wade K. Aldous
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- Journal:
- Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology / Volume 31 / Issue 7 / July 2010
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 January 2015, pp. 728-732
- Print publication:
- July 2010
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Background.
Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have emerged as the causes of nosocomial infections in critically ill patients.
Objective.To characterize the incidence of these MDR bacteria over time in the military healthcare system, comparing isolates recovered from overseas combat casualties with isolates recovered from local military and civilian patients.
Methods.Retrospective electronic records review of culture and/or susceptibility testing results of patients admitted to a military level I trauma center in San Antonio, Texas, during the period from January 2001 through December 2008. Multidrug resistance was defined as the first isolated organism resistant to 3 or more classes of antimicrobial agents.
Results.Over time, the percentage of MDR A. baumannii isolates increased from 4% to 55%, whereas the percentage of MDR P. aeruginosa isolates increased from 2% to 8%. Respiratory tract specimens had a higher percentage of MDR A. baumannii isolates (49%), compared with specimens obtained from blood (30%), wound sites (24%), or urine (19%). No difference in the percentages of MDR P. aeruginosa isolates was observed with regard to source of specimen. The percentage of MDR A. baumannii isolates recovered was higher among patients who had been deployed overseas (52%) than among local patients (20%). When isolates recovered from patients in the burn intensive care unit (53% of MDR A. baumannii isolates) were removed from analysis, the percentage of MDR A. baumannii isolates decreased from 38% to 30% while the percentage of MDR P. aeruginosa isolates remained unaffected.
Conclusion.The percentage of MDR A. baumannii isolates increased in this facility among combat casualties and among local patients, which indicates nosocomial transmission; however, there was no significant increase in the percentage of MDR P. aeruginosa isolates. Isolated changes in the MDR pathogens within a facility can occur. Possible interventions to limit the spread of these organisms could include implementing aggressive infection control practices, controlling antibiotic use, and using active culture surveillance.
The relation between the vapour pressure and water content of soils
- Amar Nath Puri, Edward M. Crowther, Bernard A. Keen
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- Journal:
- The Journal of Agricultural Science / Volume 15 / Issue 1 / January 1925
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 27 March 2009, pp. 68-88
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Much of the modern work on the physical properties of soil has been interpreted on a colloidal basis and more recently this hypothesis has been extended by the thermodynamical studies of Wilsdon and also by the investigations of two of us on an indirect measurement of the vapour pressure of capillary systems. There is evidence that the colloidal portion of the soil can be regarded as possessing a reticulate structure, possibly analogous to that shown by Zsigmondy to exist in silica gels. The pore space in soils is therefore an assemblage of voids and irregular capillaries ranging from ultramicroscopic dimensions in the colloidal portions to the macroscopic interstices between adjacent compound particles and the larger mineral fragments. Whereas in studies of evaporation and movement of water the total intersticial space is operative, the vapour pressure of soils at different moisture contents is very largely controlled by the minute pores associated with the colloidal portion and the larger voids have comparatively little influence. Vapour pressure measurements therefore afford a promising line of attack on the physical relations between the colloidal soil material and water, especially when the measurements are made on soils subjected to a variety of preliminary treatments, known to have a considerable effect on other physical properties. The effect of successive wetting and drying, heating and addition of salts are of especial interest in this connection.
The evaporation of water from soil: III. A critical study of the Technique
- Bernard A. Keen, Edward M. Crowther, John R. H. Coutts
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- Journal:
- The Journal of Agricultural Science / Volume 16 / Issue 1 / January 1926
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 27 March 2009, pp. 105-122
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Some recent researches on the evaporation of water from soil are reviewed.
Experiments on the evaporation of water from a soil paste spread in shallow pans showed that the drying proceeded very irregularly over the soil mass. Considerable portions became almost completely dry whilst other portions remained very wet. There was a rough relationship between the form of the dry patch and the shape of the corresponding evaporation rate curves.
An improvement in technique was effected by exposing the soil in thin layers below glass plates. Under these conditions, reproducible results were obtained. Soil and kaolin, but not sand, gave considerable linear portions over the region of decreasing rate of evaporation. Tests on soil exposed as central discs, or peripheral rings, and on partially covered full plates, showed that, owing to the type of air currents set up, the drying was largely confined to the outer edges during the early stages.
A Case Study of the Construction of International Hierarchy: British Treaty-Making Against the Slave Trade in the Early Nineteenth Century
- Edward Keene
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- Journal:
- International Organization / Volume 61 / Issue 2 / April 2007
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 11 April 2007, pp. 311-339
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- April 2007
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This article evaluates different theories of hierarchy in international relations through a case study of the treaty system that the British constructed in the early nineteenth century in an effort to abolish the slave trade. The treaty system was extraordinarily wide-ranging: it embraced European maritime powers, new republics in the Americas, Muslim rulers in northern and eastern Africa, and “Native Chiefs” on the western coast of Africa. It therefore allows for a comparative analysis of the various types of treaty that the British made, depending on the identity of their contracting partners. The article argues that a broadly constructivist approach provides the best explanation of why these variations emerged. Although British treaty-making was influenced by the relative strength or weakness of the states with which they were dealing, the decisive factor that shaped the treaty system was a new legal doctrine that had emerged in the late eighteenth century, which combined a positivist theory of the importance of treaties as a source of international law with a distinction between the “family of civilized nations” and “barbarous peoples.”
Some of the arguments in this article were presented to a seminar at the University of Chicago, and I am grateful to members of the Political Science Department there for several valuable constructive criticisms. I would also like to thank Duncan Bell, Molly Cochran, Steve Hopgood, Andy Hurrell, Katja Weber, and the journal's two anonymous readers for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of the article.
10 - Images of Grotius
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- By Edward Keene, Assistant Professor, Sam Nunn School of International Affairs, Georgia Institute of Technology
- Edited by Beate Jahn, University of Sussex
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- Book:
- Classical Theory in International Relations
- Published online:
- 22 September 2009
- Print publication:
- 09 November 2006, pp 233-252
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Summary
The literature on the history of ideas about international politics is overwhelmingly devoted to a small group of ‘great thinkers’: Thucydides, Augustine, Machiavelli, Grotius, Hobbes, Rousseau, Burke, Kant, Hegel, Marx and Nietzsche. Even as their works have been reinterpreted in novel ways, these thinkers have retained their position at the centre of historical scholarship, often at the expense of others. Thucydides, for example, no longer enjoys an unquestioned title to be the original author of the theory of the balance of power, but he is still the subject of a flourishing ‘cottage industry’ in International Relations theory that must be the envy of other ancient historians, such as Herodotus. Machiavelli's satanic reputation as the master of Realpolitik may have acquired a more benign aspect as we become more familiar with his republican sympathies, but his ability to overshadow early-modern reason of state theorists such as Francesco Guicciardini has not been lessened by the considerable reappraisal of ‘Machiavellism’ that has taken place from, say, Friedrich Meinecke to R. B. J. Walker. Kant's thought about international relations has undergone any number of new formulations in recent years, but he is still generally acknowledged as one of the pivotal thinkers about international politics in the modern period, while other equally worthy thinkers from his period – Denis Diderot and Johann Gottfried Herder, for instance – languish in relative obscurity.
European Conquest and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: The Moral Backwardness of International Society
- Edward Keene
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- Journal:
- Perspectives on Politics / Volume 3 / Issue 1 / March 2005
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 09 March 2005, pp. 203-204
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- March 2005
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European Conquest and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: The Moral Backwardness of International Society. By Paul Keal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. 274p. $70.00 cloth, $24.99 paper.
Paul Keal's study of the position that indigenous peoples have occupied in international society is best read as a critical contribution to the work of the “English School” of international relations theory. Members of this school have long had an interest in relationships between European and non-European peoples, usually understanding them in terms of the expansion of the European society of sovereign states. Keal takes this as his starting point, but he criticizes it as “incomplete” because “it has excluded the story of peoples destroyed and dispossessed in the process of expansion” (p. 36). The purpose of his book is to broaden our understanding of the expansion of international society to include those stories, and so invite us to think more critically about the moral value of the society of states.
Effect of Nurse Staffing and Antimicrobial-Impregnated Central Venous Catheters on the Risk for Bloodstream Infections in Intensive Care Units
- Juan Alonso-Echanove, Jonathan R. Edwards, Michael J. Richards, Patrick Brennan, Richard A. Venezia, Janet Keen, Vivian Ashline, Kathy Kirkland, Ellen Chou, Mark Hupert, Abigail V. Veeder, Janice Speas, Judy Kaye, Kailash Sharma, Aliki Martin, V. Dianne Moroz, Robert P. Gaynes
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- Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology / Volume 24 / Issue 12 / December 2003
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- 02 January 2015, pp. 916-925
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- December 2003
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Background:
Defining risk factors for central venous catheter (CVC)-associated bloodstream infections (BSIs) is critical to establishing prevention measures, especially for factors such as nurse staffing and antimicrobial-impregnated CVCs.
Methods:We prospectively monitored CVCs, nurse staffing, and patient-related variables for CVC-associated BSIs among adults admitted to eight ICUs during 2 years.
Results:A total of 240 CVC-associated BSIs (2.8%) were identified among 4,535 patients, representing 8,593 CVCs. Antimicrobial-impregnated CVCs reduced the risk for CVC-associated BSI only among patients whose CVC was used to administer total parenteral nutrition (TPN, 2.6 CVC-associated BSIs per 1,000 CVC-days vs no TPN, 7.5 CVC-associated BSIs per 1,000 CVC-days; P = .006). Among patients not receiving TPN, there was an increase in the risk of CVC-associated BSI in patients cared for by “float” nurses for more than 60% of the duration of the CVC. In multivariable analysis, risk factors for CVC-associated BSIs were the use of TPN in non-antimicrobial-impregnated CVCs (P = .0001), patient cared for by a float nurse for more than 60% of CVC-days (P = .0019), no antibiotics administered to the patient within 48 hours of insertion (P = .0001), and patient unarousable for 70% or more of the duration of the CVC (P = .0001). Peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) were associated with a lower risk for CVC-associated BSI (P = .0001).
Conclusions:Antimicrobial-impregnated CVCs reduced the risk of CVC-associated BSI by 66% in patients receiving TPN. Limiting the use of float nurses for ICU patients with CVCs and the use of PICCs may also reduce the risk of CVC-associated BSI.
1 - The orthodox theory of order in world politics
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp 12-39
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Summary
Nowadays, order in modern world politics is usually described in terms of the norms, rules and institutions of the European society of states. The distinguishing characteristic of this international society is that it acknowledges the existence of different political systems and cultures in the world, and attempts to facilitate their peaceful coexistence with one another by promoting toleration. It tries to achieve this goal through the normative principle of the reciprocal recognition of sovereignty: each state is supposed to recognize the independent sovereignty of the others within their territorially defined spheres of domestic jurisdiction. Thus no state is allowed to interfere in the internal affairs of another, and each has the space to develop its own way of life as it chooses. Numerous implications for the structure of international order follow from this starting point. Because each state is an independent sovereign, there is by definition no central authority that can lay down and enforce international law, maintain peace and security, or compel the members of international society to act in ways that are contrary to their national interests. The institutions of the society of states therefore have to be able to cope with extreme decentralization, even anarchy. For example, the integrity of the system and the independence of its individual members are primarily maintained by the highly flexible and voluntaristic institution of the balance of power, albeit sometimes with the addition of a special managing role for the great powers.
2 - The Grotian theory of the law of nations
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp 40-59
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Among theorists of international relations today, Hugo Grotius is more famous for having defended the existence of an international society than for any substantive propositions he made about what it looks like or how it operates. As I explained in chapter 1, a major reason for this attitude is the way in which the ‘Grotian tradition’ has come to be understood in the context of Martin Wight's ‘international theory’ and Hedley Bull's reflections on the Grotian conception of international society. Over the last thirty years or so, the historical analysis of Grotianism by theorists of international relations has moved away from debates about the sources, content and scope of international law within a societas gentium, and has instead concentrated on debates about the nature of international politics within a states-system. Consequently, the Grotian position is now normally juxtaposed against two alternative political theories of international relations: Machiavellian or Hobbesian realism, and Kantian cosmopolitanism. This leads to the popular view that the most important distinguishing feature of Grotianism is its commitment to the idea of a society of states, in contradistinction to the Hobbesian denial of such a society and the Kantian insistence on a world community of humankind. According to the defenders of contemporary ‘Grotianism’, this offers a valuable way of thinking about international politics because it is more sensitive to questions about world justice than the realists, while at the same time being more sensitive to the problems of anarchy and pluralism than the cosmopolitans.
Beyond the Anarchical Society
- Grotius, Colonialism and Order in World Politics
- Edward Keene
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002
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Edward Keene argues that the conventional idea of an 'anarchical society' of equal and independent sovereign states is an inadequate description of order in modern world politics. International political and legal order has always been dedicated to two distinct goals: to try to promote the toleration of different ways of life, while advocating the adoption of one specific way, that it labels 'civilization'. The nineteenth-century solution to this contradiction was to restrict the promotion of civilization to the world beyond Europe. That discriminatory way of thinking has now broken down, with the result that a single, global order is supposed to apply to everyone, but opinion is still very much divided as to what the ultimate purpose of this global order should be, and how its political and legal structure should be organised.
Acknowledgements
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp xiii-xiv
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Index
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp 162-165
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3 - Colonialism, imperialism and extra-European international politics
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp 60-96
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Summary
It is hardly surprising that Hugo Grotius's theory of the law of nations gained its colossal popularity. As I have already noted, his account was practically tailor-made for the main Protestant powers in the Thirty Years War, in the sense that it justified their prosecution of the war against Spain and the Hapsburgs without endorsing more general theories of resistance that might have proved awkward at home; sufficient reason, no doubt, for Gustavus Adolphus's famous liking for carrying De Jure Belli ac Pacis around with him on his campaigns. The more lasting significance of Grotius's work, however, lies in its relevance to people who wanted to justify colonialism on the basis of individuals' rights in the law of nations to appropriate unoccupied or uncultivated lands, and to people who wanted to justify the assertion of public authority by European states in the extra-European world. Both practices were radical extensions of Hugo Grotius's original position, and it is by no means obvious that he would have given an unqualified endorsement to either of them, but it is nevertheless fair to say that over time an especially close relationship developed between the specific propositions of the Grotian theory of the law of nations – his ideas of divisible sovereignty and private property – and the modern practices of colonialism and imperialism. Certainly, there was more of an affinity here than there was between the Grotian theory and the practice of the ‘Westphalian’ states-system that developed within Europe.
Conclusion
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp 145-150
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The main critical point I have made in this book is that orthodox theories of order in modern world politics are inadequate because their analysis of the development of modern international order is too narrowly concentrated on the European states-system. While they have given some excellent descriptions of how that system operates, and especially how its members have collectively formed an international society based on the principle of respect for each other's sovereign equality and independence, orthodox theorists have almost completely ignored the way in which Europeans behaved beyond Europe, and therefore have failed to provide a proper analysis of the principles that have structured their relations with non-European peoples since the seventeenth century. Moreover, because they adopted a mistaken interpretation of the ‘Grotian tradition’ of international legal thought, and because their theory of the society of states is now popularly believed to represent that tradition, one of the principal examples of modern legal thinking about the characteristic features of international order beyond Europe has been cast into obscurity, making it much harder to recover a proper sense of what was going on in that part of the world.
The bulk of my argument has been devoted to trying to give an account of the pattern of international political and legal order that developed in the world beyond Europe, my goal being to supplement, rather than replace, the orthodox theory of order in the European states-system.
Contents
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp vii-viii
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Preface
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp ix-xii
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As anyone who has studied international relations will probably be aware, the title of this book is a reference to Hedley Bull's famous work, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics. My use of a similar language is intended in part as a tribute to the power and insight of Bull's argument, and in part as a criticism of its limitations. Before I present my own perspective on order in world politics, then, I want to explain briefly why I attach so much importance to Bull's approach, and where I think he went wrong.
To my mind, the most attractive feature of Bull's work is his lucid defence of the view that in certain respects international relations are social relations, and that order in world politics should therefore be conceived as a form of social order. Bull developed this position primarily to challenge the popular belief that international relations should be understood in ‘Machiavellian’ or ‘Hobbesian’ terms. In other words, he was taking issue with the argument that, because the international system is anarchic, all states have to obey the brutal logic of Realpolitik and must devote themselves to the pursuit of their own national interests. Bull acknowledged that this perspective captures some aspects of international relations, as does an alternative ‘Kantian’ perspective that highlights the importance of transnational or ideological solidarity and conflict, but he insisted that neither tells us the whole story.
4 - Two patterns of order in modern world politics: toleration and civilization
- Edward Keene, University of Oxford
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- Beyond the Anarchical Society
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- 22 September 2009
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- 11 July 2002, pp 97-119
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I have contested the orthodox view that order in modern world politics rests on the conjunction between the Grotian legal concept of international society and the historical concept of a states-system. In the first place, it is misleading to interpret Hugo Grotius's work as an anticipation of what legal order might look like in the emerging society of territorially sovereign states, since two of its central themes reflected the quite different propositions that sovereignty is divisible and that individuals as well as sovereigns have rights in the law of nations. I have also tried to fill in one of the crucial gaps that arises from orthodox theorists' decision to concentrate on the development of European public order in virtual isolation from the rest of the world. At the same time that the ‘Westphalian system’ of equal and mutually independent territorially sovereign states was taking shape, quite different colonial and imperial systems were being established beyond Europe, predicated above all on the division of sovereign prerogatives across territorial boundaries and the assertion of the rights of individuals, especially to property. We therefore ought to reject the view of Hedley Bull, to take just one recent example, that ‘[t]he idea of international society which Grotius propounded was given concrete expression in the Peace of Westphalia’. It is the colonial and imperial systems beyond Europe that have the closest affinity with Grotian ideas about the law of nations and, if we are to talk about a ‘Grotian conception of international society’ at all, we should rather be concerned with the distinctly non-Westphalian structure of political and legal order in the extra-European world.